Theories of Learning
Learning theories are important instructional design, performance and quality improvement tools. There is no single learning theory that can address the whole issue of learning; rather learning theories often work together to support different aspects of learning design and development. Below are various learning theories for learning and performance.
A history of learning theories
Behaviorism
Learning is a process of forming associations between stimuli in the environment and the corresponding responses of the individual. Learning is motivated by the extrinsic factors (environmental stimuli)
- Classical conditioning (Ivan Pavlo,1849-1936): a type of unconscious learning process that creates a conditioned response through associations between an unconditioned stimulus and a neutral stimulus.
- Instrumental or operant conditioning (Edward Thorndike 1874-1949): a learning method in which a specific behavior is associated with either a positive or negative consequence, the consequences of the behavior control learning, so called the law of effect.
- Operant-conditioning paradigm (B.F. Skinner 1904-1990): similar to instrumental conditioning, a behavior is learned as a function of the consequences of the behavior dictated by reinforcement or punishment.
Cognitivism
Learning is a process of internal thought in which the mind is an information processor and the information is received, organized, stored and retrieved by the mind.Learning is motivated by both extrinsic factors (learning condition, information or data) and intrinsic factors (consciousness, determinants and efficacy)
- Latent learning (Edward Tolman 1886–1959): a type of subconscious learning process in which information is retained (learning occurs) without reinforcement or motivation.
- Working memories (1960s): a cognitive system with a limited capacity that can hold information temporarily.
- Long-term memories (1970s): a reserve of knowledge over an extended period.
- Cognitive load theory (1980s, John Sweller): is an instructional design strategy that guides the presentation of information in a manner that encourages learner activities that optimize intellectual performance. Cognitive load refers to the amount of working memory used.
- Social cognitive learning (Albert Bandura 1925-2021): a learning theory that proposes that an individual acquires knowledge through observing others in the context of social interactions. The learning outcomes are affected by the environment factors, the individual’s cognitive factors and behavioral factors.
Constructivism
Learning is a process where knowledge is constructed on existing experience or understanding. The motivation of learning is different for each individual.
- Reflective thought and action (John Dewey 1859-1952): occurs when countering a problem by defining the problem based on experience, studying the conditions of the situation, forming a working hypothesis, reasoning and testing the hypothesis.
- Zoom of proximal development (Lev Vygotsky 1896-1934): "the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem-solving under adult guidance, or in collaboration with more capable peers"
- Scaffolding (Lev Vygotsky 1896-1934, Jerome Bruner 1915-2016): a learning strategy to break up learning into chucks, and providing tools or structure with each chunk.
- Assimilation and accommodation (Jean Piaget 1896-1980): Assimilation occurs when we modify or change new information to fit into our schemas (what we already know, our existing mental structure). Accomodation is when we restructure or modify what we already know so that new information can fit in better. Assimilation and accommodation are related, and serve to achieve the state of equilibration.
- Learning domains (Benjamin Bloom 1913-1999): a learning model that classifies learning objectives: cognitive domain (knowledge-based), affective domain (emotion-based) and psychomotor domain (action-based), referred as Bloom’s Taxonomy.
- Experiential learning cycle (David Kolb, 1970s): a learning process in which students learn by doing (experiencing) and by reflecting and applying the experience.
Connectivism
Learning is a process where information is gathered from a variety of internet resources, identified, learned and distributed to other internet resources.
- Learning as a network creation (Georgia Siemens, 2000s): a learning theory that emphasizes the connections human make, and views learning as processes where "informal information exchange becomes organized into networks and is supported with electronic tools".
- Connective knowledge (Stephen Downes, 2000s): a type of knowledge, which can be distributed, i.e. "A property of one entity must lead to or become a property of another entity in order for them to be considered connected; the knowledge that results from such connections is connective knowledge".
- Holonomic brain theory (1970s): a theory that interprets human consciousness is formed by quantum effects in or between brain cells.
- Quantum perspective of learning (2010s): an explanation of learning from the connectivity point of view: "everything is connected, learning is multi-dimensional, occurs in various planes simultaneously, consists of potentialities which exist infinitely, is holistic/holographic in nature and is pattered within holographic realities, and learning environments are living systems."
Learning is an action, meaning we have to do something, no matter how we respond to the environment, think in our mind, interact with other people or use technologies.
Learning as activity
The theory of learning as activity was introduced by David Jonassen (2002). It emphasized the correlations and interdependence of learning and activities. It is understandable that learning has to be carried out in some form of activity, i.e. the subject needs to act in the process of learning. The learning as activity theory adapted the model of the activity system (Engeström, 1999)) and provided a detailed framework that fosters activities and supports learning. Below is an example showing the class as an activity system.
Engeström, Y. (1999). Activity theory and individual and social transformation. In Y. Engeström, R. Miettinen, & R. Punamäki (Eds.), Perspectives on Activity Theory (Learning in Doing: Social, Cognitive and Computational Perspectives, pp. 19-38). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511812774.003
Learning as cognitives processes in social contexts
Bandura, A., & National Inst of Mental Health. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, N.J: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Bandura, A. (2001). Social cognitive theory of mass communications. In J. Bryant, & D. Zillman (Eds.). Media effects: Advances in theory and research (2nd ed., 121-153). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Learning as information processing
If we say we have learned something, it can mean
we have grasped an amount of information, likely this information has been internalized and become the knowledge we hold, and we can apply this information, even to
create new information. Given everything we do, information is the media, i.e. the carrier for the activities. Many factors can affect the information activities as shown in the scheme below. If we want to learn effectively, definitely we need to build up interest, pay attention and use information processing strategies, such as repetition, reinforce, and practice to aid memory.
Bloom's Taxonomy
Bloom's taxonomy is a learning model that classifies learning objectives, often refers to as the learning domain classification. The three learning domains in Bloom's taxonomy are cognitive domain (knowledge-based), affective domain (emotion-based) and psychomotor domain (action-based).
A revision in the cognitive domain of Bloom's Taxonomy further classifies knowledge as factual (basic elements), conceptual (interrelationships), procedural (methods of inquiry) and metacogintive (knowing one's own thinking). Six areas of intellectual abilities are classified from simple to complex. These abilities are correlated to specific actions, i.e. to perform.
Dave, R. H. (1970). Psychomotor levels. In R. J. Armstrong (Ed.), Developing and writing behavioral objectives. Tucson: Educational Innovators Press.
Harrow, Anita J. (1972). A Taxonomy of the Psychomotor Domain: A Guide for Developing Behavioral Objectives. New York: David McKay Co.
Learning as meaning-making processes
The meaningfulness is different to different people. One thing is meaningful to one person, which may represent as being important, relevant, interesting, or useful to that person, may not be meaningful to others. People are more likely to engage in the learning that is meaningful to them. The question is what can count as being meaningful? Some may think wealth, fame and power are meaningful things. That is true to some extent; however, often the gained wealth, fame or power become burden rather than the joy that people have imagined. I think the meaningfulness to people is in the spiritual realm, and it is a kind of fulfillment to people’s purpose of life. To fulfil something requires effort. More effort applied will produce more value to the fulfillment, i.e. if something costs more, people will care more about what they have paid for. Therefore, challenges are good for producing meaningfulness, and high standards are fostering strategies for meaningfulness. Well, those may answer the “how” part of getting meaningfulness. For “what” is meaningfulness, I think it is never about selfish personal gain, meaning people can never get true fulfillment from their selfish personal gain; rather it may always have to be for what we can do for other people.
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